Ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras of Samos remains one of history’s most enigmatic and influential figures. His profound contributions laid foundational concepts in mathematics, philosophy, and cosmology that continue to resonate through Western thought.
Born around 570 BC, Pythagoras is widely recognized as the eponymous founder of Pythagoreanism, a school that blended scientific inquiry with spiritual discipline. His teachings, though largely unwritten by him, left an indelible mark on subsequent generations.
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The enigmatic life of Pythagoras
The exact details surrounding the life of Pythagoras are shrouded in mystery, with historical accounts often blending fact with myth. No authentic writings from the ancient Greek mathematician himself have survived, leaving scholars to piece together his biography from fragmented and often contradictory sources. Early mentions by figures like Xenophanes and Heraclitus are brief and sometimes satirical, offering limited concrete information.
Later biographies from late antiquity, particularly those by Diogenes Laërtius, Porphyry, and Iamblichus, constitute the primary sources of information regarding Pythagoras. However, these works, written centuries after his death, tend to grow increasingly mythical and fantastical in their descriptions of his achievements. Despite this, Porphyry and Iamblichus notably drew upon earlier, more reliable material from 4th-century BC students of Aristotle, including Dicaearchus, Aristoxenus, and Heraclides Ponticus, which modern scholars often consider the most trustworthy accounts.
Early years and formative journeys
Pythagoras was born on the Greek island of Samos, situated in the eastern Aegean Sea, as attested by historians Herodotus and Isocrates. His father, Mnesarchus, is depicted as either a gem-engraver or a wealthy merchant, though his family lineage remains a subject of dispute. His mother was reportedly named Pythaïs. These early years on Samos are believed to have shaped his initial intellectual curiosity, setting the stage for his expansive future.
Historical consensus suggests that Pythagoras undertook extensive travels early in his life, venturing to regions such as Egypt and Babylon. These journeys were crucial for his intellectual development, exposing him to diverse cultural and scientific traditions. It is widely speculated that he absorbed significant knowledge in mathematics, astronomy, and religious practices from these ancient civilizations, influences that would later become central to his own philosophical system.
Founding the Pythagorean school
Around 530 BC, Pythagoras emigrated from Samos to Croton, a Greek colony located in southern Italy. It was here that he established his renowned school, which would become the epicenter of Pythagoreanism. The institution was not merely an academic center but a communal and ascetic society where initiates were reportedly bound by oaths of secrecy. This blend of intellectual pursuit and spiritual discipline defined the unique character of his teachings.
The school at Croton became famous for its rigorous lifestyle and intellectual demands. Members committed to a communal existence, adhering to a strict ethical code that included vegetarianism and various purification rituals. This structured environment fostered a deep sense of community among the adherents, allowing them to dedicate themselves fully to the philosophical and mathematical principles laid down by Pythagoras. The school’s influence spread rapidly, attracting many followers across Magna Graecia.
The philosophical and mathematical contributions of Pythagoras
The impact of Pythagoras on philosophy and mathematics is profound, even if many attributed discoveries are debated among historians. He is often credited as the first individual to identify himself as a “philosopher,” or a “lover of wisdom,” a term that underscored his approach to knowledge and understanding. His overarching belief that “all is number” formed the bedrock of his cosmological and metaphysical views, suggesting a deep, intrinsic connection between mathematics and the structure of the universe.
Though Pythagoras left no written works, his teachings were meticulously preserved and propagated by his disciples. The school emphasized the importance of numerical relationships in understanding not just geometry and music, but also the harmony of the cosmos and the human soul. This holistic approach ensured that his influence extended far beyond mere calculations, embedding mathematics within a broader philosophical framework.
The doctrine of metempsychosis and universal music
Among the most securely identified teachings of Pythagoras is the doctrine of metempsychosis, or the “transmigration of souls.” This fundamental belief posits that every soul is immortal and, upon death, it enters a new body. This cycle of reincarnation was a central tenet of Pythagorean philosophy, influencing the ethical practices and dietary restrictions of his followers, who sought to purify their souls through their way of life.
Furthermore, Pythagoras may have been the originator of the concept of musica universalis, or the “harmony of the spheres.” This theory proposes that the planets and other celestial bodies move according to specific mathematical ratios, thereby producing an inaudible symphony of music. This elegant idea beautifully encapsulates his conviction that mathematical principles govern all aspects of the universe, from the smallest number to the grandest cosmic movements.
Mathematical and scientific attributions
Pythagoras and his school are widely credited with an array of significant mathematical and scientific discoveries, though the exact authorship of many of these remains a subject of scholarly discussion. The Pythagorean theorem, which relates the sides of a right-angled triangle, is arguably his most famous attribution, a cornerstone of geometry that has fascinated thinkers for millennia. While some evidence suggests the knowledge of this relationship predated Pythagoras, his school is believed to have provided its formal proof and widespread dissemination.
Beyond the iconic theorem, Pythagoras is also associated with advancements such as Pythagorean tuning in music, which defines intervals based on perfect fifths. Other contributions include the study of the five regular solids, the theory of proportions, and early astronomical observations like the sphericity of the Earth and the identification of the morning and evening stars as the planet Venus. While some of these achievements might have been the work of his students, such as Hippasus and Philolaus, they collectively represent the enduring intellectual legacy of his school.
The enduring legacy of Pythagoras
The life of Pythagoras was not without its trials. Following Croton’s decisive victory over Sybaris around 510 BC, his followers, who had become a significant political force, faced severe conflict with pro-democracy factions. Their meeting houses were subsequently burned, and Pythagoras himself may have been killed during this persecution, or he might have escaped to Metapontum, where he is believed to have died. Despite these upheavals, his ideas persisted and continued to shape intellectual discourse for centuries.
The influence of Pythagoras extended directly to Plato, whose dialogues, particularly the Timaeus, clearly exhibit strong Pythagorean ideas concerning mathematics, cosmology, and the structure of the soul. Through Plato and later Aristotle, the profound impact of Pythagorean thought permeated the very foundations of Western philosophy, shaping discussions on metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.
Influence on Western philosophy and science
The teachings of Pythagoras experienced a major revival in the first century BC, particularly among Middle Platonists, coinciding with the rise of Neopythagoreanism. This renewed interest solidified his status as a pivotal philosophical figure, a reputation that endured throughout the Middle Ages. His emphasis on numerical harmony and the mathematical underpinnings of reality proved highly appealing to scholars and mystics alike, fostering new interpretations of his ancient wisdom.
The profound influence of Pythagoras was not limited to philosophy but also extended into the realm of science, inspiring some of history’s most prominent figures. Scientists like Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, and Isaac Newton, all of whom sought mathematical order in the cosmos, were undeniably touched by Pythagorean concepts. Their groundbreaking work in astronomy and physics echoes the ancient Greek mathematician’s belief in a universe governed by elegant numerical laws.
Modern echoes of Pythagorean thought
Beyond academia, Pythagorean symbolism found its way into early modern European esotericism, where its mystical interpretations of numbers and the cosmos resonated deeply. The blend of spiritual discipline and mathematical insight offered a rich tapestry for various occult traditions, further testifying to the enduring power of his ideas. Pythagoras became a revered figure, embodying the bridge between the material and the divine through the language of numbers.
Perhaps surprisingly, the teachings of Pythagoras, as vividly portrayed in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, would also later influence the modern vegetarian movement. His commitment to a meat-free diet, rooted in his belief in the transmigration of souls and the sanctity of all life, became a historical precedent for ethical and health-conscious food choices. Thus, the ancient wisdom of Pythagoras continues to echo across diverse fields, from scientific discovery to ethical living, cementing his place as one of history’s most versatile and impactful thinkers.
References
CAVALCANTE DE SOUZA, J. Pre-Socratics: Fragments, Doxography, and Commentaries. São Paulo: Abril Cultural, 1973. CORNFORD, F. M. Plato’s Theory of Knowledge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1935. KAHN, C. H. Plato and the Socratic Dialogue. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. KRAUT, R. “Plato”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017. Available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/ MEINWALD, C. C. “Plato”. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2023. NAILS, D. The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2002. REALE, G. History of Ancient Philosophy. São Paulo: Loyola, 1994. TAYLOR, A. E. Plato: The Man and His Work. London: Methuen, 1926. VLASTOS, G. Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. ZELLER, E. Plato and the Older Academy. London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1888.
Frequently asked questions
Pythagoras of Samos was an ancient Ionian Greek philosopher and polymath, best known as the eponymous founder of Pythagoreanism. His most significant contribution was the development of a school of thought that deeply influenced Western philosophy, particularly through figures like Plato and Aristotle, and he is famously associated with the concept that “everything is number.”
Born on the Greek island of Samos around 570 BC, Pythagoras is believed to have traveled extensively, including to Egypt and Babylonia, before settling in Croton, southern Italy, around 530 BC. There, he founded a school where initiates reportedly adhered to strict secrecy and lived a communal, ascetic lifestyle, focusing on mathematics, philosophy, and religious principles.
Pythagoras is famously associated with mathematical discoveries such as the Pythagorean theorem, Pythagorean tuning, the theory of proportions, and the sphericity of the Earth. Philosophically, he promoted the “transmigration of souls” (metempsychosis) and potentially the “musica universalis.” However, historians debate the direct authorship of many of these ideas, as some may have originated earlier or were developed by his students and successors.
Following Croton’s victory over Sybaris around 510 BC, Pythagoras’s followers encountered political opposition, leading to the burning of their meeting houses and persecution. Pythagoras himself may have died during these events or escaped to Metapontum. Despite these challenges and the absence of his own authentic writings, his ideas were preserved by his school and later greatly influenced figures from Plato to Copernicus, Kepler, and Newton, solidifying his enduring impact on science and philosophy.
Profile
Pythagoras
Died: c. 495 BCE – Metapontum, Magna Graecia (modern Italy)
Active Period: 6th Century BCE
School Founded: c. 530 BCE, Croton
