Ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus founded a revolutionary school of thought, Epicureanism, centered on achieving a tranquil life. His pursuit of happiness, free from fear and pain, profoundly influenced Western philosophy by proposing a path to serenity.
This intellectual giant advocated for a self-sufficient existence surrounded by friends, challenging conventional wisdom and advocating for simple living. His ideas, focusing on freedom from disturbance, continue to resonate through the centuries.
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The formative years of Epicurus
Epicurus was born in February 341 BC on the Aegean island of Samos, then an Athenian settlement. His parents, Neocles and Chaerestrate, were both Athenian-born, and his father held Athenian citizenship. Growing up during the final years of the Greek Classical Period, Epicurus was exposed to a rich intellectual environment, receiving a typical ancient philosophy education that included studying under a Samian Platonist named Pamphilus for approximately four years.
His early education provided him with extensive training in rhetoric, evident in the clear and persuasive nature of his surviving writings, such as the Letter of Menoeceus. This foundational period shaped his critical thinking and the communication style that would later define his philosophical teaching. However, his life took a turn after the death of Alexander the Great when Perdiccas expelled Athenian settlers from Samos to Colophon, on the coast of what is now Turkey.
Upon completing his required military service, Epicurus joined his family in Colophon. There, he continued his philosophical inquiries, studying under Nausiphanes, a philosopher who adhered to the teachings of Democritus. This engagement with Democritus’s atomic theory would prove highly influential, forming a crucial component of Epicurus‘s own cosmological and physical doctrines, although he would later introduce significant modifications.
Despite these evident influences, Epicurus vehemently denied having been shaped by any previous philosophers, famously denouncing them as “confused” and insisting that he was entirely “self-taught.” This assertion underscored his commitment to independent inquiry and his desire to present his philosophy as a fresh, unadulterated path to truth and happiness, even as scholars identify possible influences from Cynicism during his time in Athens.
Establishing The Garden: Epicurus’s philosophical school
Around 306 BCE, after establishing philosophical schools in Mytilene and Lampsacus, Epicurus moved to Athens and founded his most famous institution: The Garden. This philosophical community was not merely a school in the traditional sense; it was a radical social experiment designed to embody Epicureanism, prioritizing tranquility, friendship, and the pursuit of happiness through communal living.
The unique nature of The Garden challenged the elitist norms of contemporary philosophical circles. Notably, it welcomed individuals from all walks of life, including women and slaves, who were typically excluded from such intellectual pursuits. This inclusivity fostered an environment where diverse perspectives could contribute to a shared pursuit of wisdom and well-being, reflecting Epicurus‘s belief in the universal applicability of his philosophy of happiness.
Life within The Garden was characterized by simplicity and moderation. Followers of Epicurus were known for eating simple meals and engaging in extensive discussions on a wide range of philosophical subjects. This lifestyle was a practical application of his teachings, demonstrating that true pleasure and peace (ataraxia) did not require indulgence or extravagance, but rather thoughtful living and strong social bonds.
Despite being a prolific writer, with reports suggesting he authored over 300 works, the vast majority of Epicurus‘s writings have been lost to history. Only a few letters, notably the Letter to Menoeceus, Letter to Herodotus, and Letter to Pythocles, along with a collection of quotes known as the Principal Doctrines, have survived intact. These fragments and letters, alongside other scattered excerpts like those from his major work On Nature, provide invaluable insights into his comprehensive philosophical system.
The core tenets of Epicurus’s philosophy
The philosophy of Epicurus, known as Epicureanism, offers a systematic approach to life, emphasizing that the ultimate goal is happiness, defined primarily as a state of tranquility and freedom from pain. This pursuit of happiness distinguished his teachings from many contemporaries, providing a practical guide for achieving a fulfilling existence.
The pursuit of pleasure and ataraxia
Central to Epicurus‘s ethical framework is the concept of pleasure (hedone) as the highest good. However, this was not a call for unrestrained indulgence, as often misrepresented. Instead, he carefully distinguished between necessary and unnecessary desires. Necessary desires, such as those for food, shelter, and security, are easy to satisfy and lead to contentment when met. Unnecessary desires, for luxury or fame, are often difficult to satisfy and can lead to greater disturbance and pain.
Epicurus advocated for a life of simple, moderate pleasures, believing that such a path was the surest route to ataraxia—a state of profound tranquility characterized by freedom from fear and mental disturbance. This mental peace, coupled with the absence of physical pain (aponia), constituted the highest form of happiness attainable. He argued that the wise individual understands how to choose pleasures that lead to lasting peace rather than fleeting excitement followed by regret.
Views on the gods, death, and free will
A cornerstone of Epicurus‘s philosophy was his unique stance on the gods. While he believed in their existence, he asserted that they had no involvement in human affairs. This detachment implied that there was no divine intervention, no preordained fate, and no need for superstitious fears or elaborate rituals to appease them. For Epicurus, the gods were perfect beings living in a state of ataraxia, serving as models for human tranquility rather than active participants in earthly events.
Furthermore, Epicurus famously argued that the fear of death is irrational and unfounded. He reasoned that death means the complete cessation of consciousness, stating, “Death is nothing to us; for that which has been dissolved into sensation is no sensation, and that which has no sensation is nothing to us.” Since the soul does not survive the body, there is no afterlife of suffering or punishment to fear. This perspective aimed to liberate individuals from one of humanity’s deepest anxieties, enabling them to live fully in the present.
Influenced by Democritus, Epicurus taught that the universe is composed of indivisible particles called atoms moving in empty space. However, to account for human free will in an otherwise deterministic atomic universe, he introduced the concept of the atomic “swerve” (parenklisis). This radical idea proposed that atoms could spontaneously deviate from their expected courses, thus permitting uncaused actions and preserving the possibility of choice and moral responsibility for humans.
The primacy of friendship
Among the many pleasures Epicurus considered vital for a happy life, friendship held a paramount position. He viewed friendship not merely as a pleasant social interaction but as a fundamental source of security, support, and lasting joy. For Epicurus, true friendship offered profound benefits, providing solace in distress and enhancing experiences of pleasure.
Cultivating strong, supportive relationships was central to the communal life at The Garden. Friends offered each other intellectual companionship, shared simple meals, and engaged in deep philosophical discussions, all contributing to a collective sense of security and belonging. Epicurus believed that friendship was among the greatest means to achieve ataraxia, creating a stable and joyful environment free from the anxieties of isolation or hostility.
Enduring impact and legacy of Epicurus
Epicurus passed away in Athens around 270 BCE, reportedly from kidney stones, yet his philosophical influence continued to spread widely for centuries. Despite his teachings being often misunderstood and misrepresented—particularly by opponents who portrayed Epicureanism as promoting unrestrained hedonism and gluttony—his actual philosophy centered on simplicity, self-sufficiency, and rational living.
Epicureanism rose to become one of the dominant philosophical schools of the Hellenistic world, standing alongside Stoicism as a major intellectual force. Its appeal lay in its practical advice for achieving individual happiness and peace in a tumultuous era. However, with the rise of Christianity, Epicurus‘s materialist worldview and denial of divine intervention led to strong opposition, and his school eventually declined by late antiquity.
Throughout the Middle Ages, Epicurus was largely remembered inaccurately as a patron of dissolute living. It was not until the fifteenth century, with the rediscovery of important classical texts, that his ideas began to re-emerge. His true teachings gained more widespread acceptance in the seventeenth century, largely thanks to the French Catholic priest Pierre Gassendi, who revived and adapted a modified version of Epicurean thought, subsequently promoted by influential figures like Walter Charleton and Robert Boyle.
The impact of Epicurus grew considerably during and after the Enlightenment. His emphasis on individual happiness, materialist physics, and a secular worldview resonated with major thinkers across various disciplines. Notable figures like the Roman poet Lucretius, whose epic poem De rerum natura (“On the Nature of Things”) brilliantly expounded Epicurean philosophy, helped solidify its place in intellectual history. Later, his ideas influenced modern utilitarians such as Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, who built upon the concept of maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain, and even thinkers like John Locke and Karl Marx found resonance in aspects of his philosophy.
The Garden itself served as a powerful model for communal living, promoting ideals of equality, mutual support, and intellectual freedom that were revolutionary for its time. Even today, Epicurus‘s insistence on happiness as the ultimate goal of life, coupled with his rational and materialistic worldview, continues to inspire discussions in ethics, psychology, and the philosophy of science, solidifying his enduring relevance in human thought.
References
BRITANNICA. “Epicurus”. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2023. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Epicurus IEP. “Epicurus”. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2023. Available at: https://iep.utm.edu/epicurus/ WORLD HISTORY ENCYCLOPEDIA. “Epicurus”. World History Encyclopedia, 2023. Available at: https://www.worldhistory.org/Epicurus/ WIKIPEDIA. “Epicurus”. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 2023. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurus
Frequently asked questions
Epicurus was born in the Athenian settlement on the Aegean island of Samos in February 341 BC to Athenian parents, Neocles and Chaerestrate. He received a typical ancient Greek education, studying under a Samian Platonist named Pamphilus and later under Nausiphanes, a follower of Democritus, in Colophon.
Epicurean philosophy centered on achieving tranquility (ataraxia), characterized by freedom from fear and absence of pain, as the ultimate goal of life. Epicurus advocated for a life of simple pleasures, emphasized the importance of self-sufficiency and friendship, believed gods do not interfere in human affairs, and taught that the universe consists of atoms moving in space, with an “atomic swerve” allowing for free will.
“The Garden” was the philosophical school and community Epicurus established in Athens, known for its emphasis on tranquility, friendship, and the pursuit of happiness. It was unique for welcoming individuals from all social strata, including women and slaves, which challenged the elitist norms of contemporary philosophical circles.
Although much of Epicurus’s extensive writings were lost and his philosophy was often misrepresented as promoting indulgence during the Middle Ages, his teachings were gradually rediscovered in the 15th century. They gained broader acceptance in the 17th century, particularly through figures like Pierre Gassendi, and later influenced prominent thinkers such as Lucretius, John Locke, Karl Marx, Jeremy Bentham, and John Stuart Mill.
Profile
Epicurus
Died: 270 BCE – Athens, Greece
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Notable Disciples and Associates
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